摘 要:閱讀和寫作是密不可分的兩種能力。本文結(jié)合實例,淺談讀后寫作對初中生語篇理解能力的促進作用,并通過調(diào)查和訪談驗證了這種教學方式的價值和意義。教師設(shè)計針對文本特點的讀后寫作形式,包括仿寫、縮寫、續(xù)寫、自由寫作等,不僅能激發(fā)學生的學習興趣,同時也讓學生通過自己的作品展示了其對文本的理解程度以及構(gòu)思表達的能力。為了寫作的規(guī)范性,教師也要作好相關(guān)鋪墊,指導學生用“論證的一般結(jié)構(gòu)”表達自己的觀點。有時教師需對文本進行創(chuàng)造性地使用,使其更有利于學生的準確閱讀和讀后寫作。
關(guān)鍵詞:讀后寫作;準確閱讀;語篇理解能力
當今越來越多的教師開始重視閱讀,可是如何讓學生的閱讀更有效并實現(xiàn)準確閱讀的目標呢?Fitzgerald 和Shanahan(2000)根據(jù)心理學界對大量實證研究的元分析結(jié)果,歸納出“閱讀”和“寫作”是密不可分的兩種能力,并依據(jù)兩者的區(qū)別、聯(lián)系和互動提出了關(guān)于“讀寫能力”的互動發(fā)展。在理性分析兩者的聯(lián)系與區(qū)別的基礎(chǔ)上,他提出了關(guān)于“閱讀”和“寫作”的歷時動態(tài)發(fā)展模型(development model)。寫作是對閱讀的模擬,寫作過程也是對閱讀的模擬過程。
能夠準確閱讀是評判好讀者的標準之一。Richard L. Allington和Rachael E. Gabriel(2018)調(diào)查發(fā)現(xiàn),孩子閱讀內(nèi)容的程度與理解內(nèi)容的程度呈現(xiàn)正相關(guān)關(guān)系。只有當讀者能夠準確閱讀某篇素材98%以上的內(nèi)容時,此次閱讀行為才會發(fā)生作用(參見“CERA中閱院播種閱讀”)。
閱讀后的寫作是一個非常有效的促進準確閱讀的過程,是一個人在構(gòu)建和輸出自己的一些見解。如果學生在閱讀素材以后能夠自由發(fā)揮地寫點東西,那是非常有意義的。閱讀是輸入,寫作是輸出,兩者緊密相連。
寫作是另一種幫助讀者練習閱讀技巧和策略的方式。當學生寫下他們想寫的內(nèi)容時,他們會考慮哪些詞語能夠準確地將自己的想法表達出來;他們也必須確保所用標點符號的準確性,以幫助讀者理解哪些詞是在一起的、自己的情感是怎樣的,等等;同時,他們也必須考慮文本結(jié)構(gòu)的搭建,而這整個過程對學生的理解能力有很大幫助。
閱讀讓學習者產(chǎn)生一定的心理狀態(tài),而這個心理過程就涉及意義理解。
讓學生參與認知復雜型任務(為達到準確閱讀的各種活動)的最終目的是給他們提供機會,以生成新的結(jié)論并證明其結(jié)論(通過閱讀建構(gòu)自己的觀點)(馬扎諾,2018)。結(jié)構(gòu)良好的論證包括“理由”“論據(jù)”和“限制條件”。“理由”代表第一層證據(jù),“論據(jù)”代表第二層證據(jù),“限制條件”表明學生對自己主張的確定性程度。最終,這些成分一起運作構(gòu)成了一個完整體,即有邏輯結(jié)構(gòu)的語篇。這一整套技能(主張—理由—論據(jù)—限制條件)中的典型技能是生成和維護“主張”,每個學生都應該知道這種論證結(jié)構(gòu)(寫作結(jié)構(gòu))(見圖1)。
論證結(jié)構(gòu)有助于學生有邏輯、有理有據(jù)地表達,讓文章具有語篇的基本特征。語篇應有一個論證結(jié)構(gòu)或邏輯結(jié)構(gòu),句子之間有一定的邏輯關(guān)系。語篇中的話段或句子都是在這一結(jié)構(gòu)的基礎(chǔ)上組合起來的(黃國文,1997)。
根據(jù)文本的不同特點,教師可以組織學生嘗試不同形式的讀后寫作。學生可以用寫作的論證結(jié)構(gòu)來表達自己對文本的理解,來體現(xiàn)其思維的變化。
1.仿寫
仿寫有多種形式,如句子仿寫、段落仿寫、內(nèi)容仿寫和結(jié)構(gòu)仿寫。仿寫的主要目的是讓學生鞏固和使用語言素材的內(nèi)容或結(jié)構(gòu),在使用中吸收語言。
[案例]
If and When were planted, and nothing grew是一篇用舉例法來證明觀點的文章(見表1)。文章前三段分別舉了三個例子:Karen 不喜歡自己的房子,想等度假回來再換房子;Sam討厭他的工作,他總說等自己參加的攝影課程結(jié)束了就換工作;Harry因身體不支總想提前退休,公司也同意了,但他擔心退休金會少。一年以后他們?nèi)诉€保持原狀,生活沒有任何改變。第四段和第五段點出了主題“光說不做,不播種,不收獲”。
上課時,教師首先讓學生討論如何理解“If and When were planted, and nothing grew.”這一諺語,導入話題。精讀環(huán)節(jié)讓學生通過標注段落對文本有個宏觀認識,之后兩個人一組討論每段的精彩表達(Beautiful expressions),并針對每段內(nèi)容各提出一個問題(Questions)。在討論完后,學生把表達和問題寫在黑板上教師提前設(shè)計好的兩個思維導圖中(見圖2),然后用思維導圖梳理整個文本中好的表達方式,并回答問題,實現(xiàn)對文本的深入理解。寫作部分教師讓學生討論作者的寫作目的以及為了實現(xiàn)寫作目的作者是如何做的。學生總結(jié)出作者使用了“舉例子”的方法,教師接著讓學生再舉一個生活中的例子,與同伴討論并寫下來,然后用多媒體展示學生作品。如圖3所示學生作品,共包含兩個自然段,第一段介紹了學生自己讀書的實例,第二段點明文章中心句“Life is too short for ifs and whens”。
2.縮寫
讀后縮寫的活動設(shè)計與讀后改寫的有些相似,其訓練和考查的也是學生對文本主旨大意和文本結(jié)構(gòu)的理解能力。和改寫活動相比,縮寫活動更要求學生對文本的關(guān)鍵性信息處理得體到位,需要學生在反復研讀文本后用極具概括性的語言形式來完成。同時,在縮寫的過程中,學生只有抓住作者的觀點和立場,明確其態(tài)度,才能用簡短精辟的語言來表達寫作者的意圖。
對于故事情節(jié)較長且生動、語言豐富的文章或是小說,教師就可以讓學生縮寫??s寫時學生既要關(guān)注文章的內(nèi)容,又要組織語言,從而達成對文本準確、深入的理解。
[案例]
外研版《英語》(新標準)九年級上冊Module 7 English for you and me課文Who Owns English?共有五個段落,分別介紹了英語使用群體、占世界人口四分之一的人說英語的原因、英語的發(fā)展歷史、英語與中國的關(guān)系,最后一段回答了“Who owns English?”這個問題。這篇文章較為抽象,教師讓學生用思維導圖梳理文章脈絡,通過縮寫提取文章主要信息(見圖4)。3.續(xù)寫
讀后續(xù)寫不僅是對學生思維擴展的訓練,還可以進一步促進學生寫作中的語言運用、段落安排、內(nèi)容編排等能力,因為續(xù)寫不太受原素材的限制,是限定寫作向自由寫作的過渡。在這樣的寫作活動中,學生可以發(fā)揮想象,盡情地享受創(chuàng)作的樂趣。
[案例]
Never too late講述的是一位老太太堅持夢想,拼搏奮進,最終考上大學的故事。文章約350詞,故事情節(jié)簡單,但非常激勵人心,語言亮點較多且包含了很多人生感悟,是一篇非常值得欣賞的作品。但由于文章包含的哲理性話語較多,會對學生造成一定的理解困難,因此課堂上教師會通過問題引導和組織小組合作的方法突破其理解障礙,幫助學生理解文本內(nèi)容。
為了實現(xiàn)精準理解文本、總結(jié)文本寫作目的、完成讀后續(xù)寫的教學目標,教師將原有文本作了如下修改:
(1)原文標題為Never too late,教師想要設(shè)計一個讓學生給文本配標題的活動,故刪除了原文本標題。
(2)原文本老人的演講是一個很長的段落,演講中提到的“四個秘訣”界限不明晰,比較影響學生閱讀效率,因此將四個秘訣單獨列出。
(3)文本最后一段寫的是“老人大學畢業(yè)后一周去世了,超過兩千多名大學生參加了她的葬禮”,最后一句點明本文中心“never too late”。因為教師已經(jīng)設(shè)計了給文本配標題的任務,且作業(yè)設(shè)計的是 What would happen to the old lady next?基于以上兩個任務,教師刪除了文本最后一段。
修改后的文章,文本結(jié)構(gòu)比較規(guī)范。四個段落的核心主題分別為:an old lady, a dream, a time machine, a speech and four secrets(見表2)。
這樣,學生展開了想象的翅膀:有的學生寫老太太畢業(yè)后成為一名老師;還有的學生說老太太成為職業(yè)演講家,每年有多場演講,把自己的成長故事跟更多的人分享;還有的學生細致描寫了大學畢業(yè)演講之后老太太途中遇到交通事故,但在住院期間她堅持寫作,將自己的經(jīng)歷寫成了書……(見表3)。
4.自由寫作
自由寫作是較常見的一種寫作活動。在閱讀教學中,自由寫作有助于學生反復通讀文本,對有價值的信息進行整合、重構(gòu),并能與自己先前的知識背景聯(lián)系起來,對讀到的各種信息進行識別、梳理和歸納,重建文本的結(jié)構(gòu)框架,或者針對文本內(nèi)容形成自己的觀點等。
[案例1]
2018年北京市豐臺區(qū)九年級一模閱讀理解D篇是一篇議論文(見附文),主要講述男女同在一個隊訓練能使女孩stronger, tougher, faster and more powerful,可以提高女孩的技能和自信,而且能避免性別刻板印象。讀后寫作題目為:Would you like to play sports with boys / girls on the same team? And why?學生需要準確理解文本,用文本中的信息來表達自己的觀點,達到真正使用語言的目的。
[案例2]
2017年北京市西城區(qū)九年級二模閱讀理解D篇Books vs. e-books: The science behind the best way to read(見附文),作者客觀地論述了人們對電子書和紙制書所持的不同觀點:有的人認為電子書攜帶方便,甚至能輕松擁有整個圖書館的書籍;有的人喜歡紙質(zhì)書,認為讀紙質(zhì)書可以提高記憶力,尤其對睡眠、視力不好的人來說讀紙質(zhì)書更有利。但作者在文末并沒有表達自己的觀點。學習完這篇文章后,給學生設(shè)計的寫作題目是:Books and E-books, which one do you prefer? And why?讀后寫作為學生提供了一個將所學內(nèi)容與自己的生活、學習、思維聯(lián)系在一起的機會。
[案例3]
2017年北京市東城區(qū)九年級二模閱讀理解D篇Do Schools Have the Right to Monitor students Online Activity?(見附文),文章第一段提出問題:某學生因在社交媒體發(fā)布不得體言論遭到學校的干涉。接著作者分別列出了兩名記者和兩名老師的觀點,他們有的不同意學校監(jiān)控學生的社交媒體,認為這是侵犯個人隱私;有的表示支持,認為這樣可以避免校園欺凌,而且社交媒體本來就是公開的,學校監(jiān)督也不是侵犯個人隱私。最后作者表達了自己的觀點:為了避免學生在社交媒體發(fā)表不得體的議論、產(chǎn)生不良后果,學校還是有權(quán)監(jiān)控的。課后寫作題目是:Do you think schools have the right to monitor students online activity? 學生在完成寫作的同時既能對文本內(nèi)涵進行深入挖掘,又能把自己的觀點融入寫作中。
通過讀后寫作,學生能夠深入了解文本的意義,同時學生的批判性思維也得到了培養(yǎng)。讀后寫作讓學生學會了質(zhì)疑、思考和判斷,這就是閱讀帶來的真正價值和意義(鄭鋼,2019)。
反饋(feedback)是在教師和學生之間建立起信息閉環(huán),能夠幫助學生了解自己的學習情況(馬扎諾,2018)。對于“讀后寫作是否有利于學生對語篇的精準理解”,筆者進行了三個維度的調(diào)查:
1.讀后寫作對閱讀習慣的影響
通過對46名學生進行多選問卷調(diào)查(見表4)不難看出,因為有讀后寫作的任務驅(qū)動,學生的閱讀習慣發(fā)生了很大變化。在閱讀中更多的學生愿意圈畫或記錄有用的短語或句型;在閱讀中會自然地將文本內(nèi)容與自己的實際情況聯(lián)結(jié)在一起,產(chǎn)生自己的觀點,從而為讀后寫作打下基礎(chǔ)。此外,由于寫作時還會用到文本中的內(nèi)容,很多學生會主動再次閱讀文本,這必然會加深其對文本的理解。讀后寫作促使學生形成重讀文本、深度理解文本的閱讀習慣。
2.讀后寫作對閱讀主動性的影響
針對讀后寫作對學生的主動閱讀是否有影響這一問題,筆者設(shè)計了如下訪談:
你覺得寫作可以促使你去閱讀嗎?如果可以,你最喜歡哪種寫作方式(續(xù)寫、仿寫、縮寫、自由寫作)?
在被調(diào)查的46名學生中,有32名學生認為寫作可以促使自己去閱讀。這32名學生中大多數(shù)學生表現(xiàn)出對自由寫作更感興趣,而不太喜歡縮寫(見圖5)。這是因為自由寫作可以比較全面地表達自己的觀點。
3.讀后寫作對后續(xù)英語學習的影響
寫作在一定程度上可以算作是閱讀的終點。語篇理解能力其實關(guān)乎三件事:第一是在眾多的信息中能找到、甄別和確定所需要的信息,這就是所謂的信息收集能力;第二是能夠結(jié)合個體的經(jīng)驗和情況,與文本開展對話,挖掘文本所蘊含的意義;第三是生成屬于自己的思想、觀點、文字等,是一種應用和創(chuàng)新的能力(鄭鋼,2019)。當學生形成一定的閱讀習慣和閱讀素養(yǎng)后,教師可以為他們后續(xù)更有難度的學習提供方法論支持,幫助他們完成更復雜的任務。
通對學生閱讀習慣和閱讀主動性的調(diào)查,筆者發(fā)現(xiàn)讀后寫作在一定程度上激發(fā)了學生的閱讀興趣、提高了學生的閱讀理解能力。學生從寫作到閱讀遷移的過程中,是通過詞與詞、句與句之間的連接,用段落的形式傳達自己的觀點。這種從文章整體出發(fā)、以語篇單位為基礎(chǔ),對文章進行分析、推理、歸納和總結(jié)的寫作思維過程,反過來影響了學生在閱讀中對語篇的分析能力和理解能力。讀后寫作以寫為出發(fā)點、以讀為落腳點,符合學生語言學習認識和心理發(fā)展的規(guī)律,有利于促進學生寫作和閱讀思維的發(fā)展。
讀后寫作如同幫學生提高語篇理解能力的“法”,當這種“法”成為他們的習慣的時候,就形成了“道”,這種“道”就是閱讀素養(yǎng)。閱讀和寫作中要以“道”引路,以“法”行路(鄭鋼,2019)。這種思路適用于讀小說、傳記、歷史、科學等多種文本。
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中華人民共和國教育部. 2018. 普通高中英語課程標準(2017年版)[S].北京:人民教育出版社.
倪文娟,北京市骨干教師,北京師范大學朝陽附屬學校英語教研組長。
2018年北京市豐臺區(qū)九年級一模閱讀理解D篇
There is an argument about whether or not boys and girls should be able to play sports on the same team. This can be a particularly tricky argument, but in the end, the benefits of coed (男女同校) sports outweigh any negative aspects.
“It is a well-known fact that boys are built to be stronger and bigger than girls. However, that does not mean that girls are too fragile (易碎的) to play sports with boys,” says Madeline R. Shes right. Boys are naturally built to be stronger, but girls can still compete with boys. In 2013, over 1,500 girls played boy football, and some were the best on their team.
Both boys and girls can gain skills from playing with and against the opposite gender (性別). A girl playing sports with boys will help the girl improve, making her stronger, tougher, faster, and more powerful as an athlete than she would have been playing with girls. Boys can also gain new skills from girls, becoming more agile and flexible (靈活的).
Playing in coed sports might not be for every girl; some might be more comfortable playing sports with the same gender. But for the girls that have the physical ability, sports skills, confidence, and desire to compete with boys should have the choice to play coed. During an interview, Katie Smith, a Womens National Basketball Association (WNBA) star, talked about how she always played with boys when she was young. She recognized early on that boys provided her with the best competition to improve her skills.
There are many social benefits, too. According to Laura E. Berk, a child psychologist, sometime kids aged between 9 and 11 will begin to develop gender stereotypes (性別刻板印象). Playing coed sports can help prevent gender stereotypes, and learning to view the opposite gender as a friend and not something frightening is something that can be useful throughout life.
It increases a girls confidence level, too. Letting girls compete with boys enhances their view of themselves and makes them more flexible. “Sports for girls have many benefits, including better grades, better body image, less depression and a higher chance of graduating from high school,” says Leigh R. Shes right, and the improvement in all of these areas will increase if girls can play with and against boys.
These are all reasons why boys and girls should be able to play sports together on the same team. While it might not be for everyone, there are definitely people out there that are looking to improve their game, and coed sports is an excellent way to do that.
2017年北京市西城區(qū)九年級二模閱讀理解D篇
Books vs. e-books: The science behind the best way to read
While you are at the bookstore, you may be faced a difficult decision: e-books or the old-fashioned kind? Each one has its pros and cons, and making the best decision depends on a number of factors (因素).
Some of the practical advantages of going digital are obvious: An e-reader can carry a whole library wherever you go, which is great for travelers or those who always want a choice of reading material. On the other hand, research shows that reading on paper has a number of benefits, too. Some people absolutely love the look, smell, and the feel of the classical book held in the hand. Other people may be adventurous when it comes to digital things, and so giving the gift of an e-reader can be a life experience for them.
Heres a look at some of the science to consider before you buy a kindle or some new hand covers.
Young, unwilling readers prefer e-readers
A 2014 study published in the journal Library & Information Science Research found that out of 142 10th grade students, most preferred e-readers. An e-reader has more in common with the electronic devices (設(shè)備) that young people use all the time, like smart phones or iPads, than a paper book.
Reading on paper may improve memory
Several small studies suggest that reading on paper instead of an electronic screen is better for memory and focus. When you read on paper you can sense with your fingers a pile of pages on the left growing, and shrinking (減少) on the right. You have the visible sense of progress. Perhaps this somehow helps the reader as they progress through the story.
Paper suits readers with sleep problems and poor eyesight
High levels of screen brightness from an electronic device can cause eye problems. There are also possible considerations for those reading e-books at night. Artificial light (人造光源) from e-readers may interfere with users ability to sleep, leading to health problems and tiredness the following day.
A love for books
Many books-lovers still prefer traditional books and value the feeling of a regular paper book. Paper books are, as a rule, very well designed, they look and smell good, and they carry with them a more human touch. In the end, avid (熱衷的) readers prefer reading on paper. Perhaps, this is their choice because traditional books give them a sense of ownership, rather than just simply using something.
2017年北京市東城區(qū)九年級二模閱讀理解D篇
Do Schools Have the Right to Monitor (監(jiān)控) Students Online Activity?
When you post a message on a social networking site, you probably dont expect your teacher or schoolmate to read it. A 12-year-old girl in Minnesota didnt expect that, either. She wrote an angry message about a classmate on her Facebook page. When teachers read that and other inappropriate (不恰當?shù)模﹎essages written by the student, the school ordered her to give them her password. This is one of several recent cases (案例) in which schools have punished students for bad online behaviour outside of school.
Akash Bagaria, a reporter of Current Events doesnt think schools have the right to monitor what students do online outside of school. “It is an invasion (侵犯) of privacy and breaks the freedom of speech. Imagine teachers checking students mobile phones or spying on (窺探)their after-school conversations. Tracking (追蹤) students on the Internet is basically the same thing. ”
Maria Shepard, a teacher at Princeton Day School in New Jersey, agrees, “If the communication tool is not school-owned and is not being used at school, schools should not monitor a students online activity...If a serious problem happens, the students parents could manage it.”
Joseph Manne, another reporter of Current Events believes schools have the right to monitor students online activity.“Inappropriate online activity often comes in the from of cyberbullying (網(wǎng)絡欺凌). Fourteen states have passed laws against cyberbullying, and other states are considering them. If a school catches a student bullying someone online before the police do, the student may not get involved in more serious trouble.”
“Whats more, school should have the right to punish students for online activity because doing so might save lives. If a student is bothering (招惹) another student, the school could deal with the problem before the argument gets physical. ”
Peter Ivancic, a teacher from Haverhill, Massachusetts, agrees. “If the students have done something worth taking the social networking site password, of course the school should take it,” he says.
From my point of view, schools do have a responsibility to keep track of what students are doing online. Does it mean an invasion of a students privacy? Most students I speak with are clear enough to realize that what they post in public spaces online is open for anyone to see. And they know that schools are looking, too.
But most of all, young people need to learn that when they post something on the Internet, there are consequences (后果). They should not be misbehaving on social networking sites in the first place.
以上有關(guān)英語學習:讀后寫作提高初中生英語語篇理解能力的實踐探究的內(nèi)容,來自《英語學習》雜志。