英語專業(yè)八級人文知識：英國的形成
英國的形成(公元1066-1381)
I. Norman Rule (1066-1381)
諾曼統(tǒng)治(公元1066-1381)
1. William's Rule (1066-1087)
威廉一世的統(tǒng)治(公元1066-1087)
Under William, the feudal system in England was completely established.
在威廉統(tǒng)治下，英國的封建制度得到完全確立。
According to this system, the King owned all the land personally. William gave his barons large estates in England in return for a promise of military service and a proportion of the land's produce. These estates were scattered far and wide over the country, so that those who held them could not easily combine to rebel the king. The barons, who had become William's tenants-in-chief, parceled out land to the lesser nobles, knights and freemen, also in return for goods and services. At the bottom of the feudal scale were the villeins or serfs. One peculiar feature of the feudal system of England was that all landowners must take the oath of allegiance，not only to their immediate lord, but also to the king.
根據此制度，國王擁有全國所有土地。威廉把英國的大片土地分給貴族，條件是換取對方服役和收租。這些地產分散于各處，這樣土地擁有者就不易聯(lián)合起來反叛國王。已成為國王土地承租人的貴族又把土地分配給小貴族、騎士和自由民，同樣換取貨物和服役。在封建等級底層的是農奴。英國封建制獨有的特色就是，無論是土地承租人還是二佃戶，都必須要宣誓效忠于直接領主，而且要效忠于國王。
2. King Henry II and his reforms
亨利二世國王和他的改革
Henry II took some measures to consolidate the monarchy. He forced the Flemish mercenaries to leave England; recalled grants of Royal lands made by his previous king Stephen; demolished many castles built in Stephen's time; strengthened and widened the powers of his sheriffs and relied for armed support upon a militia composed of English freemen.
亨利二世采取了一些措施鞏固君主制。他迫使弗蘭德斯雇傭軍離開英國，收回史蒂芬森贈出皇室土地;拆除幾十座史蒂芬森時造德城堡，加強并擴大了他的行政長官們的權力，依靠由英國自由民組成的民兵獲取軍事支持。
King Henry II greatly strengthened the Court and extended its judicial work. He divided the whole country into six circuits and appointed justices to each. Cases were therefore heard before the intermittent justices who applied the law impartially. During his reign, a common law was gradually established in place of the previous laws of the local barons. He also introduced a new jury system to replace the old ordeal-based trial system. Besides, he shifted the trial of clergymen charged with criminal offenses from the Bishop's court to the King's court.
亨利二世大大加強了王家法院，擴展了其司法工作的職權范圍。他將全國分為六個審制區(qū)。案件更多地由巡回法官審理，并不偏不倚地使用法律。在他統(tǒng)治時期，逐漸建立起超越地方領主法律的普遍法。另外，他用陪審員制度代替了舊的殘酷的審判制度。他堅持被控犯有刑事罪的神職人員應由國王法庭審判，而不由主教法庭審判。
II.Contents and the significance of the Great Charter
《大憲章》的內容及意義
Great Charter was signed by King John in 1215 under the press of the barons. It consists of sixty-three clauses. Its important provisions are as follows: (1) no tax should be made without the approval of the Grand Council; (2) no freemen should be arrested, imprisoned or deprived of their property; (3) the Church should possess all its rights, together with freedom of elections; (4) London and other towns should retain their traditional rights and privileges, and (5) there should be the same weights and measures throughout the country. Although The Great Charter has long been popularly regarded as the foundation of English liberties, it was a statement of the feudal and legal relationships between the Crown and the barons, a guarantee of the freedom of the Church and a limitation of the powers of the king. The spirit of the Great Charter was the limitation of the powers of the king, keeping them within the bounds of the feudal law of the land.
《大憲章》是約翰國王1215年迫于封建貴族的壓力而簽定的。《大憲章》總共63條，其中最重要的內容是：(1) 未經大議會同意，不得征稅;(2) 只有根據國家有關法律才能逮捕、監(jiān)禁自由人以及剝奪他們的財產;(3)教會應享受其所有權利且有選舉自由;(4) 倫敦和其它城鎮(zhèn)應保留其古時的權力和特權;(5) 全國要使用統(tǒng)一的重量和長度度量衡。盡管人們普遍認為《大憲章》為英國的自由奠定了基礎，但該憲章只是規(guī)定國王和貴族之間封建關系和法律關系的文件，保證了教會的自由，限制了國王權利?！洞髴椪隆返木袷窍拗茋鯔嗔Γ蛊湓谟饨ǚ稍试S的范圍內活動。
III.The origins of the English Parliament
英國議會的起源
The Great Council is known to be the prototype of the current British Parliament. In 1265, Simon de Montfort summoned the Great Council, together with two knights from each county and two citizens from each town. It later developed into the House of Lords and the House of Commons. Its main role was to offer advice. There were no elections or parties. And the most important part of Parliament was the House of Lords.
大議會是當今英國議會的原型。1265年，西門德孟福爾召開大議會，各郡有兩名騎士，各鎮(zhèn)有兩名市民參加。大議會發(fā)展到后來演變成議會，分為上議院和下議院。其作用是咨詢而非決定;也沒有選舉和政黨。議會的最重要的部分是上議院。
